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1

UK, iron and steel production
Process
Raw materials consisting of sinter, iron ore and coke are fed into the top of the blast furnace and pre-heated air is blown in around the base. Melting and chemical reduction occur within a shaft of the blast furnace. Liquid iron is removed at the base together with slag, whilst the off gases pass out the top of the furnace to be cleaned and used as a fuel. Some iron ore has suitable properties to be used directly in the blast furnace, but much of it is too fine, and has to be sintered prior to use.
The sintering process
Mixture of iron ore and small amount of coke --> onto moving grate --> ignition. Temperature in the combustion zone is ~1200 degrees, material partly melts and forms agglomerates. At the end of the grate - breaker --> cooler --> sinter produced has a large particle size, acceptable in the blast furnace. "Off" gases cleaned by electrostatic precipitators. At the point of emission the dust content is typically 60 mg/m3 (all dust <10 microns).
Radioactivity
Average U decay products 0.015 Bq/g. Sintering process - Pb-210 & Po-210 volatilised and concentrated in the off gas. Po-210 70 Bq/g, Pb-210 15 Bq/g - in the dust.
Authorisation for these emissions is required as the values are above "emission limit without authorisation" in the UK Radioactive Substances Act
Doses to the public ~ 1-2 microSv/year, highest - 18.5 microSv/year
Products & wastes from the stages of the production further downstream in the process were examined and have failed to show any enhanced concentrations of radionuclides
In blast furnace off gas dust: Po-210 2.8 Bq/g, Pb-210 8.0 Bq/g - these are below the "disposal limit without authorisation" from the UK Radioactive Substances Act

H-10
2
Egypt, steel industry
<also relevant for coal>
Burning coal, source of coke used in the steel industry, about 25% of all coal is used for this. Coke is burned in blast furnace to reduce iron oxides, iron oxides to metallic iron. In blast furnace coke is also used as a burner for pre-heating the combustion air.
Hematite - main iron ore (Fe2O3). Limestone used as a flux in steeel industry - to render the impurities in raw material and to combine with the impurities to facilitate their removal from the metal.
Specific activities (Bq/g)
Coal: Th-234 0.059, Ra-226 0.026, Pb-214 0.015, Bi-214 0.015, Ac-228 0.008, Bi-212 0.008, Tl-208 0.008
Coke: Th-234 0.050, Ra-226 0.025, Pb-214 0.014, Bi-214 0.011, Ac-228 0.008, Bi-212 0.010, Tl-208 0.009
Iron ore (hematite) Th-234 0.460, Ra-226 0.245, Pb-214 0.221, Bi-214 0.212, Ac-228 0.006, Bi-212 0.003, Tl-208 nn/d
Limestone: Th-234 0.121, Ra-226 0.044, Pb-214 0.033, Bi-214 0.030, Th series - n/d
Fly ash: Th-234 0.041, Ra-226 0.023, Pb-214 0.018, Bi-214 0.016, Ac-228 0.010, Bi-212 0.011, Tl-208 0.009
Slag: Th-234 0.090, Ra-226 0.073, Pb-214 0.047, Bi-214 0.041, Ac-228 0.029, Bi-212 0.034, Tl-208 0.024.
I-03
3
Egypt, steel industry
Radionuclide concentrations in iron ore are generally low, even in the slags and other wastes.

E-08

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